Students will enter different occupations and will need to learn the particular code of ethics for their occupation as well as how to apply that code. For example, the National Education Association Code of Ethics 15 contains two main principles: commitment to the student and commitment to the profession. In lower level courses, because students will go into different professions, it will not be possible to take account of all codes.
But it would be useful, in class, to take at least one code of ethics, and use it to examine problem cases. Using the National Education Association Code of Ethics, for instance, students could explore how well the teachers they have had fulfilled the code? Where, specifically, did they succeed or fail? What could they have done better? What can the student learn from the code that would apply to his or her own life? See the list of discipline-specific codes in the resources section below.
Teaching ethical reasoning online presents its own particular challenges. Learning how to reason ethically is a dialectical, back-and-forth process.
Simply delivering content through lectures and readings are at best supplementary forms of instruction. The primary form of instruction needs to be interactive because students need to present ideas, get feedback on those ideas, and then try out re-formed ideas that themselves will be subject to further modification. So because learning ethical reasoning requires active, not passive learning 16 , particular care must be given to ensuring that online courses are designed with opportunities for rich interaction between students as well as between students and instructors.
Discussion boards appear to be the most common way of achieving these interactions, but doing so requires particular attention to certain dynamics:. Ethical reasoning is best evaluated through essays or oral examinations in response to specific ethical problems. They do not lend themselves well to multiple-choice or short-answer assessments. What should James do? Please give alternative courses of action for James, and the potential advantages and disadvantages of each course of action. Ben could do several things:.
In the end, I would suggest James tell the faculty member exactly what he saw and then leave it to the faculty member to decide what to do. Ben is hurting not only himself by the cheating, but everyone else, and he ought to learn sooner rather than later not to cheat.
Use ethical dilemmas that address those issues that are more applicable to your particular discipline and address the ethical codes of behavior most salient in your discipline see the list of resources below for discipline-specific ideas.
When using discipline codes of ethics, you should ask three questions:. Certainly it does for any health-care professional. Second, are you applying the guideline? If you are spending the time with patients that they need, if you are listening attentively to them and answering their questions, if you are keeping their information confidential, and if you are giving them the very best treatment you can, you might say that, yes, you are applying the guideline.
But what could you do better? Perhaps you are not always as willing to discuss very difficult issues with patients as you should be, whether for lack of time or for lack of enthusiasm to engage in difficult conversations, such as in planning for serious side effects of medication or even death.
In that case, you might work on this issue in order better to apply the guideline. In assessing quality of ethical reasoning, the key principle for instructors to remember is that you should score for quality of reasoning, not for agreement with the conclusions the student reaches. We tend to like people who are similar to, and who agree with us 17, 18 , which can introduce bias into grading.
So as teachers, we have to be scrupulous to make sure we are grading for quality of reasoning, not for agreement with our set of values or perspectives. What matters is how well students reason, not the exact content of what they say. When students have written essays showing their ethical reasoning, there are some general attributes of the essays to look for, and some specific attributes as well.
The general attributes are those that would apply to essays of almost any kind including how logical, coherent, organized, and persuasive the essay is. The specific attributes are relevant in particular to ethical reasoning. The sample essay above is a strong one, because it presents four alternative solutions as well as a fifth that is recognized as unethical, and it considers both the advantages and disadvantages of each potential solution.
Sternberg, Cornell University Why this Learning Objective Matters Colleges and universities today, in their testing and even their teaching, place great emphasis on academic content knowledge, as they should.
Consider the skills in this model and how they apply in an ethical dilemma—whether a student, James, should turn in a fellow student, Ben, whom he saw purchase answers from an upcoming examination from an ethically compromised Internet site: Recognize that there is an event to which to react. James has to observe Ben purchase the answers and decide that it is a situation in which he potentially might have some role other than being a passive observer.
Define the event as having an ethical dimension. James has to define the cheating as unethical. Students do not always see cheating—such as purchasing answers in advance of a test—as unethical. Many students do so; but some others may see it as a practical or utilitarian matter. On this view, it is ok if Ben or anyone else can get away with it. Decide that the ethical dimension is significant. Take personal responsibility for generating an ethical solution to the problem.
James may decide that there is an ethical problem here, perhaps even a major big one, but that the problem is not his concern.
Figure out what abstract ethical rule s might apply to the problem including any codes of ethics relevant to the situation. What rule applies? If there is no honor code, is there an institutional rule by which James should turn in Ben? Is he under any obligation? Perhaps James believes, on the contrary, that the rule is to mind his own business, or to avoid cheating himself, but not to turn in Ben.
Or James may believe that student solidarity takes precedence over turning in cheaters. Decide how these abstract ethical rules actually apply to the problem so as to suggest a concrete solution. Perhaps James believes that, in general, one should turn in cheaters, but that he cannot apply the rule in this situation, realizing that he could not prove that Ben cheated. Finally, bioethics education may be formulated in the scope of the rational moral education approach and the integration strategy of the acculturation model.
Even though rational moral education is related to the moral development of children, its neutral aspect aiming to teach morality in an impartial manner and its indirect feature considering educators solely the facilitators of moral development may be applicable to bioethics education to create a liberal and humanistic teaching environment Narvaez Moreover, the perspective of the integration strategy of ethical acculturation produces a useful approach to emphasize the significance of the consolidation of personal moral values and professional ethical qualifications Bashe et al.
Outlining the goals of ethics education is crucial to accurately describe its concept and determine its scope. Because of this reason, almost every paper examining ethics education addresses certain goals.
These statements suggest that an important goal of ethics education may be to produce good, ethical professionals. According to Cubie L. Sanders and Hoffman express the main goals of ethics education in social work as improving moral judgement, which indicates how to deal with ethical conflicts, and moral sensitivity. These goals show the ability of pinpointing ethical issues. Mihyun Park et al. Even though each of the aforementioned studies evaluates teaching ethics in a different discipline or profession, they mostly agree on improving ethical awareness, sensitivity, and judgement to identify, analyze, and resolve ethical issues and conflicts.
All the mentioned interpretations reveal essential elements of ethics education and its goals. Nevertheless, in this paper, the objectives of ethics education will be elaborated in light of the four pillars of the Delors Report.
In other words, the four pillars of the lifelong education approach will be adapted to the determination of the goals of ethics education. The concept of lifelong education is parallel to the perspective of ethical acculturation which deems ethics learning as an ongoing process.
Moreover, there is a similarity between the reasons behind the concept of lifelong education and the arguments counting ethical acculturation an as ongoing process.
The ethical acculturation model requires individuals to keep continuing their ethical training throughout their professional lives due to the ongoing changes Handelsman, Gottlieb and Knapp For overcoming the continuous changes in healthcare and healthcare-related areas, healthcare professionals should proceed with their ethics education as long as they practice their professions. In this view, the goals of ethics education are as follows:.
The acquisition of knowledge is not only the first goal of ethics education, but also the initial objective of all kinds of education. Some approaches may attribute further qualities to education, but there is a consensus among them that the primary function of education is to gain knowledge Peters This criterion is also valid for ethics education.
For instance, Campbell, Chin, and Voo explain the goals, assessment methods, and outcomes of medical ethics education through a three-level ascending pyramid, the first level of which is knowledge. Similarly, Sudhir K. Chawla et al. Furthermore, Henk ten Have underscores the weight of knowledge in the understanding of ethical issues. This goal of ethics education refers to the possession and increase of the information about ethics-related subjects.
Learning ethical theories, rules, principles, codes, and other applicable ethical information are related to this objective. Ethics education has the task to identify, analyze, and resolve ethical issues and conflicts.
Having adequate ethical knowledge is the necessary, but not sufficient, condition of fulfilling the task. For this reason, ethics education must provide satisfactory ethical information to be able to establish or improve other pertinent considerations, such as developing ethical skills.
In this view, ethics education should aim to supply adequate information to know relevant subjects and concepts. As aforementioned, acquiring or increasing ethical knowledge is the first step of ethics education. However, the presence of knowledge is not sufficient per se to identify, analyze, and resolve ethical matters and challenges.
The ability to stimulate knowledge and transform it into actions is also certainly important and necessary. Therefore, besides ethical knowledge, ethics education should provide the opportunity to improve ethics-related skills: ethical sensitivity, ethical awareness, and ethical judgement.
Catherine Robichaux states that in the event of creating a learning-friendly environment, ethical skills can be taught through ethics education. In this context, many authors, such as Jensen and Greenfield as well as Mihyun Park et al. The aim of strengthening ethical skills is to gain or increase the ability of learning to do a job, as highlighted by the concept of learning throughout life. Developing the pertinent skills is significant not only to meet daily routines of the professions, but also to deal with unexpected ethical circumstances Delors et al.
Additionally, the acquisition or improvement of skills needs long-term training, hence the teaching of ethics should be accepted as a process, in terms of strengthening skills as well. As previously elaborated, ethics education does not refer to traditional character education. Therefore, in principle, teaching ethics does not necessitate forming virtuous character of behavior.
Moreover, according to several studies, it is questionable whether ethics education creates moral behavior Gordijn and ten Have ; Wright ; Cannaerts, Gastmans and Casterle However, at that point, the idea of generating a virtuous character should be differentiated from the view of influencing professional behavior. Furthermore, improving ethical behavior is formulated in light of learning throughout life concept's third pillar: learning to be.
Cultural competence implies beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and policies facilitating a compatible togetherness in a cross-cultural environment Chin ; Anderson et al. Cultural, religious, and social diversity in healthcare as well as in all levels of multicultural societies necessitates finding a peaceful way to prevent cultural assimilation as well as cultural separation or marginalization.
In this view, the integration strategy of ethical acculturation provides an outstanding aspect to encourage the survival of moral differences in an integrated structure Bashe et al. Utopia, some might think, but it is a necessary Utopia, indeed a vital one if we are to escape from a dangerous cycle sustained by cynicism or by resignation Delors et al.
Regardless of being a utopia or not, the underscored understanding should be reflected to ethics education in order to transcend the teaching or learning of a list of ethical codes, rules, and principles. For this reason, it is absolutely believed that promoting cultural competence is a primary goal of ethics education.
Increasing ethical knowledge and improving ethical skills to strengthen ethical sensitivity, awareness, and judgement are classic goals of ethics education emphasized by almost all studies which inquire into the aims of teaching ethics. However, the cultural, religious, and social diversity bolstering a cultural competence-based approach is the unique characteristic of the present study. As an idea as well as an ideal, endorsing diversity is not a new view, but recognizing the importance of diversity as a central goal of ethics education is an original perspective.
The UDBHR underlines the significance of diversity and pluralism as a universal principle and requests respecting this value in light of human dignity and human rights Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights These three perspectives were integrated to determine the notion of teaching ethics and its objectives. Rational moral education demonstrates the role of educators in teaching ethics which demands providing learners all aspects, ideas, and approaches of ethics without imposing a specific one on learners.
Learning throughout life denotes the precondition of ethics education as an ongoing process. Under the general perspectives of these three approaches and the adaptation of the four pillars of the Delors Report to teaching ethics, the goals of ethics education were defined as increasing ethical knowledge; improving ethical skills to strengthen ethical sensitivity, awareness, and judgement; developing ethical behavior; and promoting cultural competence.
Anderson, L. Culturally competent healthcare systems. A systematic review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 24 3 Suppl : 68— Avci, E. Learning from experiences to determine quality in ethics education. International Journal of Ethics Education. Google Scholar. Barrett, A. Bashe, A. An acculturation model for ethics training: the ethics autobiography and beyond. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 38 1 : 60— Bendik-Keymer, J. Vasil Gluchman, Berry, J. Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation.
Applied Psychology: An International Review 5— Boon, H. Raising the bar: ethics education for quality teachers.
Australian Journal of Teacher Education 36 7 : 76— Article Google Scholar. Burnett, N. The delors report: a guide towards education for all. European Journal of Education 43 2 : Campbell, A. Chin, and T. How can we know that ethics education produces ethical doctors? Medical Teacher — Canary, H. Communication Education 63 2 : 83— Cannaert, N. Gastmans, and B. Dierckx de Casterle. Nursing Ethics 21 8 : — Catron, B. Teaching ethics, teaching ethically. Policy Studies Review 8 4 : — Chawla, S. Evaluating ethics education for accounting students.
Management Accounting Quarterly 16 2 : 16— Chin, J. Culturally competent health care. Public Health Report 1 : 25— As we proposed in hypothesis 3a, prosocial motivation affects knowledge sharing more positively with higher rather than lower levels of dutifulness.
Further analysis also suggested that the indirect effects of ethical leadership on knowledge sharing are moderated by dutifulness. A highly dutiful individual possesses a strong sense of helping others Moon et al. They are more likely to be prosocial and engage in behaviors that benefit others.
In contrast, when an individual has a low level of dutifulness, the predicting effects of ethical leadership and prosocial motivation to share knowledge will be weakened. Thus, the knowledge sharing behaviors of postgraduate students increase with an increasing level of dutifulness in current study. As we proposed in hypothesis 3b, prosocial motivation affects knowledge sharing more positively with lower rather than higher levels of achievement-striving.
Moreover, further analysis also suggested that the indirect effects of ethical leadership on knowledge sharing are moderated by achievement-striving. Higher achievement-striving individuals focus more on self-interest and self-performance.
They strive to win or outperform others and consider other people as potential competitors, which push them to reluctantly engage in behaviors that are risky and costly for their self-interest when it comes to knowledge sharing Smither and Houston, ; Tangirala et al. Thus, the predicting effects of ethical leadership and prosocial motivation for postgraduate students to share knowledge will weaken in this context. However, when an individual has a low level of achievement-striving, they are more likely to engage in knowledge sharing because of the relatively weak, self-centered orientation.
Our research results provide considerable theoretical contributions to the knowledge sharing and higher education literature. First, this research supports the mediating role of prosocial motivation in the relationship between ethical leadership and knowledge sharing. The present study highlights the role of prosocial motivation in facilitating knowledge, which complements the empirical evidence of the antecedents of knowledge sharing.
Second, although research has established that ethical leadership can influence knowledge sharing Bavik et al. The present study contribution lies in the idea that the effect of ethical leadership on knowledge sharing is not evenly distributed across individuals when dutifulness and achievement-striving are considered. That indicates that knowledge sharing behaviors increase with increasing levels of dutifulness, and knowledge sharing behaviors decrease with an increasing level of achievement-striving.
Third, numerous findings in various organizational settings have demonstrated that ethical leadership can effectively promote knowledge sharing. Our research enriches the findings of ethical leadership and knowledge sharing in the context of higher education, which promotes the research value of ethical leadership and knowledge sharing in scientific research organizations. Our findings also offer several useful practical suggestions.
Thus, ethical leaders should serve as role models and make their followers identify, internalize, and emulate modeled behaviors. When recruiting, selecting, or promoting supervisors, the companies and organizations should focus on their moral identity.
Second, except the influence of ethical leadership on knowledge sharing, our findings also suggest that prosocial motivation is critical to knowledge sharing. In the context of high education, supervisors need to cultivate the willingness of postgraduate students to share knowledge. Afterward, postgraduate students will be more willing to share knowledge even at the cost of self-interest. This also helps us understand the mechanism of knowledge sharing behaviors of socially oriented employees in the work context.
Third, given the moderating role of dutifulness and achievement-striving, individuals with higher levels of dutifulness are more likely to share knowledge. Whereas, individuals with higher levels of achievement-striving are not likely to share knowledge. Thus, team leaders should consider and evaluate the two facets of conscientiousness among postgraduate students: provide high dutiful postgraduate students with enough supervisor support and coworker support, supply achievement-striving postgraduate students with the opportunities and resources to show themselves Chae et al.
Moreover, team leaders should make sure that supervision and punishment are implemented to avoid knowledge hiding behaviors. Fourth, our study can provide valuable insights into how to cope with problems opposite to knowledge sharing, such as knowledge hiding Abdullah et al.
First, supervisors should show more altruistic behaviors or provide ethical conduct examples that postgraduate students can imitate, and regulate their knowledge hiding behaviors in their daily behaviors. Second, supervisors may recruit those with other-oriented characteristic to inhibit knowledge hiding. Third, organizations might avoid knowledge hiding by regulating the influencing factors, including monetary rewards, personal development, and personal career growth Lee et al.
In the era of knowledge economy, the research findings based on scientific research teams of universities are also applicable to companies and organizations Bartol et al. We believe that leaders, whether they are in universities or companies, should abide by moral principles and treat their employees or postgraduate students with full respect. In hiring employees or postgraduate students, individual morality, personality, and thinking should be given attention, inhibiting recruitment based on competence alone.
This positive organizational climate could eventually promote cooperation and sharing behaviors among employees within the organization. Our study has several limitations that should be considered and addressed in the future. However, our research design makes it impossible to speculate about the causal relationships between variables. Thus, future studies should collect data apart from self-report measures, such as by using an experimental design to validate the causal effect of ethical leadership on knowledge sharing, the mediating effect of prosocial motivation, and the moderating effect of the two facets of conscientiousness.
However, we are not clear whether other mediating factors might play a similar role in strengthening knowledge sharing or diminish knowledge hiding. Third, we only chose the knowledge sharing of postgraduate students as the dependent variable to measure the effects of ethical leadership.
Finally, the questionnaires were distributed in Chinese universities, and the team members were postgraduate students in universities in one province in China, the sample size was moderate, which may weaken the generalizability of the results. Influenced by the traditional Confucian culture, Chinese people usually pay more attention to the spirit of collectivism and dedication, which may affect the accuracy of conscientious measurement.
In this regard, future research should further replicate and examine the effects of ethical leadership on knowledge sharing and its influence mechanism in other organization, institutional, countries, or cultural contexts. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.
Both the authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Abdullah, M. Ethical leadership and knowledge hiding: a moderated mediation model of relational social capital, and instrumental thinking. Aiken, L. Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions.
Google Scholar. Bandura, A. Social foundations of thought and action. Social cognitive theory: an agentic perspective. Bartol, K. Social exchange and knowledge sharing among knowledge workers: the moderating role of perceived job security.
Bavik, Y. Ethical leadership and employee knowledge sharing: exploring dual-mediation paths. Brown, M. Ethical leadership: a review and future directions. Ethical leadership: a social learning perspective for construct development and testing. Cabrera, A. Knowledge-sharing dilemmas. Chae, H. Two facets of conscientiousness and the knowledge sharing dilemmas in the workplace: contrasting moderating functions of supervisor support and coworker support.
Cheng, B. Paternalistic leadership and subordinate responses: establishing a leadership model in Chinese organizations. Asian J. Collins, C. Knowledge exchange and combination: the role of human resource practices in the performance of high-technology firms.
Costa, P. Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources. DeConinck, J. Give proper acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize. Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication. Help to educate, mentor, and advise students.
Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own decisions. Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public education, and advocacy. Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors not related to scientific competence and integrity.
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole. Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments. When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly.
Responsible Conduct of Research, 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. Although codes, policies, and principles are very important and useful, like any set of rules, they do not cover every situation, they often conflict, and they require considerable interpretation.
It is therefore important for researchers to learn how to interpret, assess, and apply various research rules and how to make decisions and to act ethically in various situations. The vast majority of decisions involve the straightforward application of ethical rules. For example, consider the following case,. The research protocol for a study of a drug on hypertension requires the administration of the drug at different doses to 50 laboratory mice, with chemical and behavioral tests to determine toxic effects.
Tom has almost finished the experiment for Dr. He has only 5 mice left to test. However, he really wants to finish his work in time to go to Florida on spring break with his friends, who are leaving tonight. He has injected the drug in all 50 mice but has not completed all of the tests. He therefore decides to extrapolate from the 45 completed results to produce the 5 additional results. Many different research ethics policies would hold that Tom has acted unethically by fabricating data.
If this study were sponsored by a federal agency, such as the NIH, his actions would constitute a form of research misconduct , which the government defines as "fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism" or FFP. Actions that nearly all researchers classify as unethical are viewed as misconduct. It is important to remember, however, that misconduct occurs only when researchers intend to deceive : honest errors related to sloppiness, poor record keeping, miscalculations, bias, self-deception, and even negligence do not constitute misconduct.
Also, reasonable disagreements about research methods, procedures, and interpretations do not constitute research misconduct. Consider the following case:. T has just discovered a mathematical error in his paper that has been accepted for publication in a journal.
The error does not affect the overall results of his research, but it is potentially misleading. The journal has just gone to press, so it is too late to catch the error before it appears in print. In order to avoid embarrassment, Dr.
T decides to ignore the error. T's error is not misconduct nor is his decision to take no action to correct the error. Most researchers, as well as many different policies and codes would say that Dr. T should tell the journal and any coauthors about the error and consider publishing a correction or errata. Failing to publish a correction would be unethical because it would violate norms relating to honesty and objectivity in research. There are many other activities that the government does not define as "misconduct" but which are still regarded by most researchers as unethical.
These are sometimes referred to as " other deviations " from acceptable research practices and include:.
These actions would be regarded as unethical by most scientists and some might even be illegal in some cases. Most of these would also violate different professional ethics codes or institutional policies. However, they do not fall into the narrow category of actions that the government classifies as research misconduct. Indeed, there has been considerable debate about the definition of "research misconduct" and many researchers and policy makers are not satisfied with the government's narrow definition that focuses on FFP.
However, given the huge list of potential offenses that might fall into the category "other serious deviations," and the practical problems with defining and policing these other deviations, it is understandable why government officials have chosen to limit their focus. Finally, situations frequently arise in research in which different people disagree about the proper course of action and there is no broad consensus about what should be done.
In these situations, there may be good arguments on both sides of the issue and different ethical principles may conflict. These situations create difficult decisions for research known as ethical or moral dilemmas.
Wexford is the principal investigator of a large, epidemiological study on the health of 10, agricultural workers. She has just published a paper on the relationship between pesticide exposure and PD in a prestigious journal.
She is planning to publish many other papers from her dataset.
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